Introduction

In the novel Reef, Romesh Gunesekera describes the lives of a Sri Lankan cook, Triton, and his master, Mister Salgado. Their lives are profoundly affected by the political turmoil surrounding the country, most notably as they flee for England in 1972. The political situation is always on the periphery of this novel. Gunesekera refers to specific historical events obliquely, and generalizes often on the state of civil war. The political history of Sri Lanka becomes vital to understanding the context of the novel. One can only understand GunesekeraÕs comment that "the whole country had been turned from jungle to paradise to jungle again, as it has been even more barbarically in my own life" by understanding the history surrounding his story (25).

The Sinhalese and the Tamils

The two major ethnic (and religious) groups in Sri Lanka are the Sinhalese and Tamils, though further distinction can be made between Tamil groups. The Sinhalese are in the majority, comprising approximately 75% of the population. This group is predominantly Buddhist and speaks Sinhala. The Tamils are typically Hindu and comprise about 16% of the total population. Sometimes, this group is divided into Indian Tamils and Sri Lankan Tamils; both groups speak the language Tamil. The different languages add to the difficulties of communication and understanding between the groups. Both the Sinhalese and the Tamils have Christian minorities within their respective communities. Outside of these two major ethnic groups, Moslems also comprise a small percentage of the population. A misconception is "that the Sinhalese are (fair) Aryans and the Tamils are (dark) Dravidians, and thereby impose on Sri Lanka the famous divide in India between its "Aryan" north and "Dravidian" south, and thereby also raise the bogey of racist claims" (Tambiah 5). The idea of racial superiority exacerbates the prejudice between the two groups. This example shows just one point of contention between the Sinhalese and Tamils.

History: 1947-1971

Ceylon (Sri Lanka) became independent from Britain in 1947. Prior to this date, it had been a colony of the British Empire. The first elections were held in 1947. The United Nationalist Party was formed (UNP), which combined nationalist and communal parties in an umbrella group. For Prime Minister, Don Stephen Senanayake was elected; he embodied no significant change from British rule. Indeed, The political consensus that the government represented embraced the upper 7 percent of the population--the English-educated, Westernized elite groups that shared in the values on which the structure was founded. To the great mass of Sinhala- and Tamil-educated or illiterate people, these values appeared irrelevant and incomprehensible. The continued neglect of traditional culture as embodied in religion, language, and art forms created a gulf that divided the ruling elite from the ruled (Ara).

In the novel, Mister Salgado's best friend, Dias, works for this government. Both men are in the elite upper group of society that is increasingly targeted by rebels in later years. In the 1956 elections, the UNP party was voted out of office in favor of the Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP). This party, led by S.W.R.D. Bandaranaike, voted to make Sinhala the official language of the country, as well as promoting Buddhism as the state religion. Thus, it is generally accepted that the government supported Sinhalese culture over Tamil culture and tradition. In September of 1959, Bandaranaike was assassinated. His widow eventually took over his role in the government, and continued to create programs that favored the Sinhalese, such as the nationalization of private, mostly Christian, schools. In 1965, Dudley Shelton Senanayake, son of the former prime minister, came to power representing the UNP. He headed the government until 1970. In the face of increasing unemployment, inflation and the failure of state-run business ventures under the SLFP government, his government tried to restore the economy to a healthy level. However, the SLFP returned to power in 1970, again under Bandaranaike, after forming a coalition with Marxist groups. In 1972, the government officially changed the name of the country from Ceylon to Sri Lanka.

Political Unrest

In Reef, Gunesekera refers to two specific instances of political unrest: the events of 1971, which act as a catalyst for Mister Salgado and Triton to flee to England, as well as the turmoil in 1983. However, political instability had been present for decades. For example, the assassination of the prime minister in 1959, as well as the subsequent problems in finding a replacement for him, demonstrate this turmoil in Sri Lanka. Within the novel, Wijetunga, Mister Salgado's assistant, speaks to Triton of the five precepts: "the simplified lessons that explained the crisis of capitalism, the history of social movements and the future shape of a Lankan revolution" (Gunesekera 121). These lessons sought to prove the failure of the executive leadership, as well as the assertion that the majority of citizens had not gained anything from Sri Lanka's post-independence economic development. Moreover, the lessons strove to instruct the people how to gain power of the country within 24 hours, using Cuba as an example. In 1971, a revolution was attempted. Sinhalese youth rose up in the "first large scale revolt against the government by youth in this country" (Tambiah 14). Although the government quickly controlled the revolt, this incident indicated the level of anger and rebellion in the population of educated, rural, young Buddhists.

The riots in 1983 started as a relatively small incident. On July 23, Sri Lankan Tamil youth, calling themselves the "Liberation Tigers," ambushed an army truck and killed 13 Sinhalese soldiers. This attack occurred in Jaffna, which was within Tamil territory under army occupation. Then, army leaders brought the mutilated corpses into Colombo, the capital city, to display them to the people. Some Sinhalese, disgusted and horrified at the sight, went out of control. They began killing Tamils in Colombo, as well as burning houses, businesses and factories. For 3 days, this burning and pillaging continued as the president and government did nothing. On July 25 and July 27, 53 Tamil prisoners were killed within the city jail. All of these events mark the beginning of the civil war between the Tamils and Sinhalese, which continues today. About 50,000 people have died in the 14 year war between the government and the Tamil Tigers, who were placed on the US State DepartmentÕs list of terrorist groups on Oct. 10, 1997. As recently as Oct. 17, 1997, a huge truck bomb killed 18 people and wounded 110 others. Sadly, the religious and ethnic differences, mentioned in the 1960s Sri Lanka of Reef, continue today.

Selected Bibliography

Ara, S. "Sri Lanka: History: SRI LANKA (CEYLON) SINCE INDEPENDENCE." Britannica Online. <http://www.eb.com:180/cgi-bin/g?DocF=macro/5006/0/15.html>

Burns, John F. "BombingÕs Fallout Adds to the Gloom Hanging Over Sri Lanka." New York Times 17 Oct. 1997, final ed.: 7:1.

Gunesekera, Romesh. Reef. New York: Riverhead Books, 1996.

Tambiah, S.J. Sri Lanka: Ethnic Fratricide and the Dismantling of Democracy. London: The University of Chicago, 1986.

Wilson, A. Jeyaratnam. Politics in Sri Lanka: 1947-1973. New York: St. MartinÕs Press, 1974.

"Sri Lanka Hails Condemning of Tamil Tigers." New York Times 10 Oct.1997, final ed: 4:3.

Author: Rebecca Makar, Fall 1997

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(Image of an "Homme Carrefour" from Donald J. Cosentino's Sacred Arts of Haitian Vodou [Los Angeles: UCLA Fowler Museum of Cultural History, 1995].)